By 500 BC two states stood head and shoulders above the other Greek city-states in their prestige and influence. These were Athens and Sparta. It was these, therefore - quite different from each other in their cultural and political outlooks - which took the lead in meeting the great challenge posed to the Greek world by its mighty eastern neighbour.
Sparta c. 700-500 BC
Like other Greek city-states, Sparta suffered from land shortage. However, she was an inland state, so overseas colonizing was not a straightforward solution for her. She solved her problem by conquering her neighbour, Messenia.
This put her in a dominating position in her corner of Greece, called Laconia, and made her one of the richer states, and a leading centre of Greek civilization. But in 669 BC, the Spartans were defeated by their near neighbour, Argos. Shortly after, the Messenians rose in revolt, with help from outside. Eventually the revolt was crushed, but for a time the very existence of Sparta lay in the balance.
The Spartans, frightened, but determined to hang on to their subject territories. They knew that, if they did so, they would always be faced with the possibility of revolt. They therefore undertook by a thoroughgoing overhaul of their constitution and their very way of life.
They turned their back on luxury, and transformed their state into an armed camp. Their citizens became full-time soldiers, under the most severe discipline, whilst their subject populations became serfs.
The Spartans soon gained a reputation for invincibility on the battle field, widely feared by the rest of Greece.
To her neighbours, the Spartans adopted a far-seeing policy. They negotiated defensive alliances with each of them, thus forging an enduring alliance system which came to be called the Peloponnesian League.
Athens c. 700-500 BC
Attica is a broad plain on the eastern coast of Greece just north of the Peloponnese, dominated by its chief city, Athens. Athens was far larger than most other Greek city-states, with a population numbering well over one hundred thousand. Perhaps because of this her political evolution had been slow – in 600 BC she was still ruled by a narrow oligarchy of aristocrats.
By that date, however, she was experiencing all the problems which other Greek states had faced, particularly land shortage and tensions between classes. An attempt to reduce tensions had been made when the politician Draco had been asked to draft a law code, so that court rulings could be made more transparent. In the event he had made things worse, as he simply took it as his brief to codify already existing customs – and so many misdemeanours resulted in the death penalty that it only increased the disaffection of the poor. Ever since then “Draconian” measures have become a by-word for heartless severity.
Shortly after 600 BC a second attempt at a law code was attempted, this time the work of Solon. His code embodied moderation – there would be no redistribution of land, but existing debts were cancelled and enslavement for debt would cease. He also gave more power to the people by re-organizing their assembly and giving it teeth.
We look back at Solon’s work and are impressed. At the time it pleased no one, and the tensions continued. Half a century later, in 546 BC, a nobleman, Peistratos, siezed power (after a couple of failed attempts) and established a tyranny. Under his rule, and that of his sons, the economy of Athens was greatly strengthened. The government encouraged the export of olives and olive oil to pay for the import of corn. Other industries were also promoted, Athens becoming the leading industrial and commercial city of Greece. The fine Attic pottery soon dominated the Mediterranean markets. At the same time the tyrants beautified the city with temples, and constructed conduits to bring fresh water to its inhabitants.
The tyranny lasted until 510 BC, when, after a short period of turmoil, the statesman Kleisthenes came to power, and carried out further reforms of the constitution.
These greatly strengthened the people’s power, gave them a real measure of executive power, and unified the Athenian citizenry by taking power away from locally- based or clan-based tribes and setting up artificial, pan-Athenian tribes in their stead. The Athenian form of government can henceforth in truth be called a democracy.
Next:
The History of Ancient Greece, Part 6: The Persian Wars
Article © TimeMaps 2007.
Last updated: 13th August 2007
